MUSIC ASSISTED LITERACY IN SPECIAL
EDUCATION:
STUDENTS WITH DEVELOPMENTAL
DISABILITIES
By
A Final Project
submitted in partial fulfillment of the
Requirements of EDU
7270 - Research Seminar in Educational Technology
towards the degree of
Doctor of Education
Instructional
Leadership and Curriculum Development
School of Education, St. John’s University,
New York
Submitted Date: April 28, 2012 Instructor: Dr. Donald
Murphy
ABSTRACT
Technology
Assisted Learning in Special Education is a talked about topic amongst
educators. Education Week® advertised
its webinar on “Tying Technology to
Literacy for Students with Special Needs” (Education Week, April 25, 2012)
during which experts in assistive technology brought participants up to date on
platforms and programs that educators can use to enhance literacy learning for
students with disabilities. 21st century technology offers tools to
access abilities. Music, which is organized sound, in all of its elements –
rhythm, meter, pitch, frequency, harmony and form, can guide and inspire all
learners. This paper builds upon my
previously published research “Music Learning in Special Education: Focus on Autism
and Developmental Disabilities” (Sobol, 2011) and provides background to the
topic, theoretical framework, selected article review, and a projection of
proposed dissertation topic “Standards Based Music Education to Enhance
Literacy for Students with Severe Developmental Disabilities”. This final
project also includes a discussion of methods of study and results of a
qualitative pilot study performed this semester on the topic.
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
While in school
our students with multiple and developmental disabilities need focused learning
to become more independent in their daily lives. With the demands of our
federal legislation, music educators want to share compelling evidence on music
learning for students with disabilities. This final project is leading up to a
dissertation research study which promises to show evidence based data of how
using standards-based music instruction for students with cognitive,
intellectual, and developmental difficulties can enhance the student’s literacy
ability to build his/her skills in reading, writing, listening, and speaking.
Current
data based research (Barrett, 2005; Carter, 2010; Criss, 2010; Greene,
2007; Hallem, 2010; Kalkavage,
2006; Levine, 2006; Orenstein et al,
2007; Ravitch, 2010 and Richardson, 2010)
indicate that standards-based music instruction has shown a correlation
to improvement of literacy skills in school programs. In addition, a February
2009 study in Social Science Quarterly revealed that music participation
has a positive effect on reading and mathematical achievement. Fall, 2002 Reading
Improvement showed teaching music aids left to right progression in reading
and writing, phrase reading, rhythmic eye movement, concrete understanding of
high, low, loud, soft, short and long. It showed how music enriches vocabulary,
teaches articulation and pronunciation. Music requires attention to detail,
neatness and precision in writing while teaching and reinforcing counting,
number recognition, fraction, symbols and their meanings. A steady rhythm with
rhyme helps in memorization of sequential information and facts. March, 1999 Neurological Research study
found that second and third grade students who were taught fractions using
music rhythm notation for eighth, quarter, half, and whole notes scored a full
100% higher on fraction tests than those who learned in the conventional
manner. As reported by S.L. Baker for the NAMM Foundation, Northwestern
University neuroscientist Dr. Nina Kraus found that actively working with
musical sounds enhances the brain’s plasticity. Pointing out the inter
relationship in music with the sensory and cognitive processes, “The efficient
sound-to-meaning connections are important not only for music for other aspects
of communication…children who have had music lessons tend to have a larger
vocabulary and better reading ability, and children with learning disabilities,
seem to strengthen the same neural processes that often are deficient in
individuals with developmental dyslexia,
(Baker, 2010).
There
are few studies, however, that focus on music learning in special education
specifically with students with multiple and developmental disabilities
including autism spectrum disorders at the high school level, age 16-21. This
is the level I currently teach. This
semester, my focus was to investigate articles that had to do with music
assisted literacy for learning in school settings serving this specific
population. As a music educator and concert pianist who has performed internationally,
I have seen that Music will reach out with Love to heal people of all nations.
For children, it is the song for the future. My overall interest is, through
musical interventions, to assist in improving the functional skills for a
better quality independent life for those currently dependent upon our
federally funded programs and who will be without such focus, dependent upon
the public welfare system and its programs in the future. This is the rationale
that points the way for significance to this study.
To
support my proposed dissertation topic, I developed from educational source
readings (Mark, 2002), an important progression of how music can assist in
building literacy skills for students with multiple and developmental
disabilities including autism spectrum disorders. The figure below entitled
“Conceptual Framework Octave Progression in Music Assisted Literacy in Special
Education” was designed in partial fulfillment of requirements also for EDU
7270 Research Seminar in Educational Technology.
Sobol: Conceptual Framework
Title: Octave Progression for Music Assisted Literacy in
Special Education
The framework is outlined by an
octave or eight circles representing the eight basic steps of our musical
scale. The scale has seven different notes from lowest to highest, the first
and eighth musical pitch is the same note. The octave is based on the science
of acoustics - double the frequency of the sound wave, it goes up an octave.
Conversely half the frequency of the sound wave, it goes down an octave. There
are eight concepts used to build my theoretical concept set against the rainbow
color scheme, from bottom to top, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo,
violet, red repeat cycle. These colors
are used constructively in my approach for teaching music to special learners
(Sobol, 2008).
John Locke (red circle) (1632-1704), described the value of
an Aesthetic Education in his Theory of Knowledge gained from Experience. He
wrote that the “senses are a gateway to the mind.” “A child will learn three
times as much as he will when he is in tune”. From Thoughts Concerning
Education, 1693, S. 74.
John Dewey (orange) (1859-1952), In his Democracy in
Education, 1916,takes John Locke’s ideas further “ Education is Life
Itself”. He is dubbed the father of experiential education and the progressive
movement. Children learn by doing. The Aesthetic Element in Education (1897)
showed Dewey’s support of music education as an enterprise for fuller
living.
Jean Piaget (yellow) (1896-1980), French speaking biologist
and cognitive psychologist whose theory identified four stages of childhood
development, sensorimotor stage, pre-operational stage, concrete operations,
and formal operations. Concept of play was important to the early development
and he supported musical activities as important to developmental learning.
Reuven Feuerstein (green) (b.1921) was a Romanian student of Jean
Piaget and he developed his renowned
Theory of Structural Cognitive Modifiability for persons with
intellectual deficits. He founded the International Center for Enhancement of
Human Potential in Jerusalem. Successful research is documenting success of his
theory worldwide for the past fifty years. My focus is to show how this theory
is applied through music to enhance literacy skills in students with multiple
and developmental disabilities including autism spectrum disorders.
Howard Gardner (blue)
(b.1943)- In his Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983) the
musical/rhythmic intelligence is identified as a whole brain intelligence which
unites functions in both the right and left hemispheres, consequently enhancing
learning potential across the curriculum.
Edwin Gordon (indigo) (b. 1925) Identified and developed a
sequential Music Learning Theory,1997 curriculum which also serves to show
the strong correlation of music learning and its connection to building
literacy skills: reading, writing, listening, speaking for all children.
Music Brain Research (violet) since 1973 there has been a
growing body of research to show
neuroscientific data on the value of music education to support learning in
other subjects such as reading, mathematics and science. Donald Hodges (Neurological
Research and Music Education, 1996-1997) discusses the characteristics of the musical brain which operates
from birth. The musical experiences are multimodal, involving auditory, visual,
cognitive, affective, motor, and memory systems. As such music can assist a
student in enhancing his learning potential.
Literacy in Special Education (red-begins 2nd octave) tops the
theoretical framework for my proposed dissertation topic. As neuroscientists
such as Dr. Donald Hodges reports, the musical brain is highly resilient and
the music persists in people with even the most profound disabilities. It is to
this end that neuroscientific research plus the theory of cognitive
modifiability supports music assisted learning in special education. My
proposed dissertation topic will show specific use of musical applications to
support common core standards for literacy in students with multiple and
developmental disabilities including autism spectrum disorders.
CHAPTER
II
LITERATURE
REVIEW
Portowitz,
Lichtenstein, Egorov, and Brand (December, 2009), explored the possible links
between cognitive structures, music education, and self-efficacy among
high-risk elementary school children at the Jaffa Institute Child-Care Centers
in Israel. There were 81 participants in all between the ages of 7 and 9. The
experimental design had 41 children who took weekly music enrichment classes in
music appreciation, performance, creativity for two to three hours a week .
These enrichment classes were conducted in the Reuven Feuerstein model of
mediated learning environments which assisted the children in developing
learning strategies while studying music. Mediated Learning Environment also
helped the children resolve problems when learning their instrument. This
experimental design ran for two years. Children in the control group, 36
participants, did not participate in music enrichment classes nor mediated
learning environments over the two year period.
Cognitive
skills were measured in pre and post assessments by Raven, Complex Figure Tests
-Standard Matrixes and Colored Matrixes -and for social esteem, the Fitts
Tennessee Self Concept(TSCS) Test scale questionnaire. The results of the
research project showed that indeed there were significant differences between
the groups in the development of the targeted cognitive skills. The findings
suggested that music, used within the mediated learning environments (MLE) does
provide cognitive development which can be applied across the curriculum. The
study gives strength to generalizing knowledge from specific music applications
to functional and adaptive daily living.
Researchers
Portowitz, Lichtenstein, Egorova and Brand have been forerunners in
the movement to show how the Theory
of Structural Cognitive Modifiability - the theory of psychologist Reuven
Feuerstein - has widespread applications for students with cognitive
disabilities, and those who are high risk from numerous reasons including low
socio-economic status. They draw upon previously published works of Feuerstein
and Rand, 1997 and the principles and teaching methods of Mediated Learning
Experience (MLE), Instrumental Enrichment (IE), and Learning Potential
Assessment Device (LPAD) found in Feuerstein, Falk, Feuerstein, and Rand, 2002.
Portowitz and Klein (2007) previously published a two year study based on Feuerstein’s cognitive modifiability. This
study definitively showed that music learning activities cultivated cognitive
functions that could then be transferred to build skills in other areas such as
anguage, reading, and writing for children at risk. “Studies of mediated
musical environments could provide important insights into the learning
potential of other groups of children with special needs,” (Portowitz and
Klein, 2007, p. 268). Underlying mechanisms linking music education and
cognitive modifiability (Portowitz
et al, 2009) inspired me to pursue my proposed dissertation topic to show
how music can help literacy development in areas of reading, writing, listening
and speaking. Quantitative methods were
used to determine results. Portowitz et al used ANOVA 2x2 analysis to evaluate
the research hypothesis (Group x Time). Her figures showed that there was a
significant improvement between pre and post intervention in the experimental
group but with the control group - without the music, without the mediated
learning environments - the scores did not improve over time and showed a bit of
decline. The results for the Fitts self-esteem questionnaire showed that
improvement in the experimental group is slightly better, but the difference
was not found to be significant which Portowitz wrote joins other research
about students who come from impoverished physical and emotional environments
and how intertwined their these cognitive, social and emotional factors are to
their self-esteem.
Underlying
mechanisms linking music education and cognitive modifiability by Adena
Portowitz, Osnat Lichtenstein, Ludmula Egorova, and Eva Brand, 2009 serve to
inform pathways for further research on how music can, with the support of
mediated learning environments, help our students reach higher levels of
independence through building literacy skills. This research builds upon my
theory of conceptual framework. With
educational technology, the importance of using Feuerstein’s Theory of
Structured Modifiability was proven by the research of Carmon, Wohl, and Even-Zohar (2008). This
research study involved an equal number of 150 five year old girls and boys who
participated in a software program entitled, “Toy Musical Notes” (TMN). The
children were of low socio-economic status and had, in some cases,
developmental delays, and were by
compromised learning challenges. The study investigated the use of TMN as a
music assisted literacy tool for reading readiness. The TMN study used three groups: a TMN Intervention group, a
conventional music intervention group, and a nonmusical intervention control
group which used instead of music, gymnastics and animal care. The hypothesis
of the researchers were that music could assist in the cognitive process of
text processing and that TMN could help children absorb the complex cognitive
processes of reading text. (Sobol, 2011, p. 239). The results of the TMN
program confirmed the research assumptions. The five rigorous tests designed to
assess reading readiness, reading ability, and cognitive development showed
that: “Regarding reading variables, the TMN group achieved the best scores. The
conventional music group’s results were generally higher than those of the
non-music group. Participation in the experimental groups was found to be the
best variable for predicting the level of reading in the first grade.” (Carmon
et al, 2008, p.92).
Simpson
& Keen (2010) in ‘Teaching Young Children with Autism Graphic
Symbols Imbedded with an
Interactive Song’ focused on the use of music in an interactive whiteboard
lesson to improve communication skills for young children with autism. The
study was done in Brisbane, Australia and lesson materials were culturally
tuned to the environment. Task
competence for PEC (Picture Exchange Communication) sequence of learning
symbols was used as a baseline prior to introduction of a discrimination task
in a time sequence. This study
provided a format of presentation and the baseline construct for replicating a
similar study for my dissertation with high school aged students with autism
spectrum disorder. The Simpson & Keen study involved only three students
but results were decisive, “using an interactive song presented by PowerPoint®
and interactive white board can facilitate receptive labeling in young children
with autism spectrum disorder (Simpson & Keen, 2010, p. 173). Receptive labeling is important for building
effective communication for literacy.
An
eye-opening research study appeared in Fall 2011 Exceptional Children.Wei,
Blackorby and Schiller investigated the “Growth in Reading Achievement of
Students with Disabilities, Ages 7 to 17.
The study investigated a nationally representative sample of 3, 421
students with disabilities. All disability categories except deaf-blindness
were accounted for in the Special Education Elementary Longitudinal Study (SRI
International, 2002) The study showed that all included disability categories
improved with age, however average reading achievement differed by category.
Speech and visual impairments performed highest; students with multiple
disabilities or intellectual disabilities performed lowest. Students with
speech, hearing, or autism progressed more slowly than students with learning
disabilities. Gender, racial, ethnic and socio-economic differences were
observed. But more importantly in this age of accountability through No Child
Left Behind, researchers Wei, Blackorby and Shiller point out “although reading
growth is comparable across disability categories, there are large differences
among categories in reading achievement. NCLB’s one-size-fits-all approach,
ignores the sizable differences among disability categories. …Students with
disabilities as a subgroup under NCLB, is simply too heterogeneous to fairly
evaluate a school’s efforts to improve student performance by using an
aggregate achievement score.” (Wei et al, p. 102). Test measures included The
Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement (WJ III) Letter Word Identification (LWI);
Passage Comprehension (PC) for language comprehension and reading skills. The
researchers highly recommend that accountability measures be changed to
differentiate between low-incidence conditions and that of students with
high-incidence disabilities. It would be helpful to school district’s Annual
Performance Review’s (APR). This study did not take into account those students
with disabilities who are evaluated by an alternate assessment, limiting
criterion validity for overall conclusions.
While reading this research study, I felt that, it would be interesting
to see how the results for the reading achievement would change using musical
intervention such as the interactive white board receptive labeling song
activity with pre and post test analysis.
The
last article of interest included in this review is from Educational
Leadership (September 2008) entitled “The Music Connection”. Although not
specifically about students with multiple and developmental disabilities as a
specific subgroup, the writer Andrea Antepenko discussed how music enhanced her
inclusive fifth grade instructional setting. Preparing for the state social
studies assessment on the Civil War with musical interventions, 96% of students
met or exceeded state standards. While students read, talked, explored, and
listened, culturally connected music was played. Students were able to
generalize lessons learned to their own play ground or school bus. Antepenko wrote that joining music and words
to reinforce a concept or material heightened the meaning of the content. Music
enhanced “our class experience of reading good writing: It moved words straight
off the page and into the heart. “ This
practiced based classroom research showed that music assisted learning deepened
students engagement with academic content- and enriched the entire community
(ASCD, 2008).
CHAPTER III
METHODS
OF STUDY
The
proposed dissertation topic “ standards-based music instruction to enhance
literacy in students with developmental disabilities” will be a mixed mode
research study, both qualitative and quantitative. Quantitative will be pre and
post tests of material covered. A quantitative pilot study will take place this
coming summer term. Parameters and measurement are still to be determined.
This semester, however, a qualitative pilot
study was taken to look at what types literacy skills were covered with music
assisted learning in two center-based special education high school programs
for students with multiple and developmental disabilities including autism
spectrum disorders. I investigated five different teachers’ musical
interventions to build daily reading, writing, listening, and speaking skills
with their students to increase their academic development and functional life
success. Two teachers were music in special education teachers, three teachers
were special education classroom teachers. Collection of data included pre and
post observation discussions, classroom observations, and review of literature
that helped to develop focus questions for the pilot study, photographs, casual
discussion, Individualized Education Program plans for students, school
demographics, classroom observations and coding of field notes. A color coding system was used for the
literacy concepts of listening (green), speaking (purple), writing (yellow),
and reading (red). These concepts were cross referenced by shapes of a circle,
star, triangle or square for the NY State Standards for Learning in the Arts
were used. NYS #1 Creating, Performing, and Participating in the Arts (Circle),
NYS #2 Knowing and Using the Arts (Star), NYS #3 Responding and Analyzing in
the Arts (Triangle) and NYS #4 Making Cultural Connections in the Arts
(Square). Results indicated that
musical/rhythmic structure and design helped these specific students focus at
task at hand and in some cases generalize knowledge. Each of the teachers used
music differently and only one teacher included writing and questioning
techniques to stimulate critical thinking.
In all cases the music helped them to improve basic literacy skills for
their Individualized Education Program goals. Music assisted literacy through
interactive white board technology proved a motivating and accessible tool for
learners.
Four
research questions helped shape this pilot study:
1. Does classroom
teacher use music to help to teach lesson concept?
2. How
does classroom teacher use the music to help teach the lesson concept?
3. What
NYS Standards for Learning in the Arts/Literacy are covered?
4. How
does student show teacher he/she is reaching student learning objective for
skill improvement?
After this qualitative pilot study,
I realized that I would want to use New York State certified music teachers
that I have trained through professional development, or as student teachers,
and/or graduate students and who are working with students with multiple and
developmental disabilities including autism spectrum disorders on a full time
basis. This will create a common denominator amongst all, especially since they
will use multisensory/multimodal presentation of learning literacy concepts.
Secondly, the design will include
school sites where the population is comparable to my population. There are
four school sites that I am looking one in Brooklyn, one in Queens, one in
Manhattan, and one on Long Island, my school site. Together the teachers and I
can devise a musical activity that will involve acquisition of functional
vocabulary. Our student learning objectives will be connected to Common Core
English Language Arts Standards and New York State Standards for Learning in
the Arts. Our sample will be
quasi-experimental so that we can work with consistent classes. Independent and
Dependent variables will be identified. Qualitative data will be coded and
graphically organized. Limitations to the study may be shaped by the students’
participation at time of collecting data. But overall, the purpose to the
proposed dissertation research is clear.
In summary, the qualitative
pilot study this semester showed that standards-based, music infused classroom
lessons, benefits students with multiple and developmental disabilities. It
brings them joy in classroom learning, literacy skill and language acquisition.
For this focus group, music is key to becoming a responsible and more
independent citizen.
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